SUPERSTICIONS

1. A black cat walking towards you or gets in your way
BAD LUCK : While in Egypt it was believed that the cat was the reincarnation of the gods , centuries later, the Catholic Church regarded him as the reincarnation of the devil, so they were burned . The black was identified with the devil to be the color of the night . In most of Europe and North America is believed that a black cat brings bad luck if you move away from you , but good luck if you walk towards you.

2 . Hanging a horseshoe behind the door
GOOD LUCK : According to the Greeks , iron - shaped crescent - protected spells , so the shoe placed on the door prevented the entry of witches and evil. Traditionally it was believed that the shoes were granted luckier of donkeys , because they have seven holes, a magic number for excellence.

3 . A crooked or falling of the wall where is picture hanging
BAD LUCK : This idea has its origins in ancient Greece , where it was believed that if the portrait of a monarch or a celebrity fell to the ground suffering serious injury meant that he would die soon .

4. Spitting
GOOD LUCK : It is believed that prevents spitting evils. Pliny wrote in his Natural History : "It is surprising , but easily verifiable , that if someone has been beaten and spit once in the palm of the aggressor, the victim's pain is relieved when some increase strength . his blows spit on his hands before making any effort. " It is also said that this force could hit better the devil.

5. Igniting three cigarettes with the same match
BAD LUCK : It is believed that a war is not known precisely which , and sometimes speaks of the First World War , in other of the Spanish Civil War ... - three soldiers lit their cigarettes with the same match and the enemy first saw the flame , said in the second and shot on the third.

6. Putting a hat on the bed
BAD LUCK : Put a hat on the bed is omen, in Spain and Italy , that something bad will happen. This superstition has another meaning : it will be a blank mind . This belief probably comes from the symbolism of the hat, which represents the head and thoughts and is a symbol of personal identification.

7. Spilling salt
BAD LUCK : Its origin dates back to 3,500 BCE Since then believed that salt was incorruptible , why he became a symbol of friendship . Hence the belief that if you pull , the friendship will break. To counter this effect damn course , you should take a pinch of spilled salt over the left shoulder .

8. Breaking a mirror
BAD LUCK : It is said that brings the seven year curse. The mirror was a magical element of divination , so if it broke , it was not to show a frightening picture of the future . Seven years is the time it supposedly took to renew a body.

9. Shutdown a blow candles
GOOD LUCK : It was in the Low German Middle Ages where the idea of ​​putting on birthday cake candles emerged many years met as children plus one. To leave behind the completed years and move to the next , it must extinguish all the candles in one breath.

10. Saying " Jesus" or " bless you" when someone sneezes
GOOD LUCK : It is because sneezing was the beginning of many different diseases and so he asked God to eschew the danger of infection.
It is also said that it was to keep out the demon through the mouth.

11. Find a four leaf clover
GOOD LUCK : It is a sacred symbol for the Druids of the British Isles , already in 200 BC thought that he could see demons .
According to legend, when Eve was expelled from Paradise , four leaf clover took ; therefore, since it is believed that gives luck.

12. Carrying a rabbit's foot
GOOD LUCK : Its origin lies in the ancient belief that every people descended from an animal that could not be hunted or eaten . Surely, the Celts brought the belief that ours was the rabbit. Six centuries before Christ and was used as an amulet to ward off evil. In addition, the rabbit's foot was also a phallic symbol capable of fertile women.

13. Passing under a ladder
BAD LUCK : That's the way this triangle with the wall . It was once thought that all triangles were a sacred symbol , both the pyramids as the trilogy of the Holy Trinity and , therefore , was a sacrilege to pass under the arch .
It is believed that once they had passed , evil conjured fingers crossed , spitting on the stairs once or thrice after crossing . This superstition is also related to the gallows always had to use a ladder to place the rope and also to remove the body : death and the stairs were always very close. Another belief comes from the paintings of the crucifixion , in which contained a ladder under which Lucifer looked furiously how Jesus died to save mankind . Hence the custom of blessing himself to protect themselves from the fury of the Devil or repel the danger.

14. Place the pan upside down on the table or drop down
BAD LUCK : Bread is a staple food . Therefore there have been several superstitions that have generated in your way to do , cut it, eat it and offer it to others. Put it upside down is supposed to bring bad luck because it actually an offense to the body of Christ ; also , when it hits the ground it is customary to kiss and make three crosses to ward off misfortune.

15. Spilling wine
BAD LUCK : When you pour the wine on the table then you should apply a little of it over the forehead for good luck ; case of champagne then you have to touch it with the tips of your fingers and give it on the lobe of the ear to achieve eternal happiness. The cause of this belief may be that the fetus is the beginning of the earlobe . For this reason, when you're soaking in champagne wishing your life be surrounded by all kinds of happiness and joy. This frothy drink is also often break against ships at its launch this gesture to wish good luck on your journey.

16. Leaving open scissors
BAD LUCK : This instrument should remain closed when not in use because it attracts bad luck. If it falls to the ground and gets split ends pointing towards you , pick it up and put salt over your left shoulder to ward off evil spirits. In Greece it was believed that moira Atropos cut with scissors the thread of life , so somehow sharps drive targeted and are a symbol of sudden death.

17. Touching wood
GOOD LUCK : A possible origin has to do with the pieces that were kept of the Holy Cross . Another , from the United States, where 4,000 years ago the Indians worshiped the oak as the abode of the gods. This material also symbolizes the maternal protection and relieves the pressure .

18. Putting the bed with his feet toward the door
BAD LUCK : Comes the popular saying : " the dead always come out of the house feet first ."

19. Starting the day on the wrong foot
BAD LUCK : I alluded in Petronius ' Satyricon " bad luck going into a place with your left foot . In Spain it may have originated in Celtic tradition and the solar motion , always right. The negative effect is eliminated by crossing himself three times.

20. THUERSDAY y 13
BAD LUCK : Curse of the number thirteen is rooted in the Last Supper of Jesus Christ with the twelve Apostles, in which he was betrayed .
It is believed that if thirteen people sit down to eat at the same table , one of them will die within a year .
The day of the week varies : in Spain , Mexico and Greece fears Tuesday and thirteen ; and in Anglo-Saxon countries and thirteen to Friday , because Friday was Jesus crucified.

Present Perfect

Notes:

1. The written lesson is below.
2. Links to quizzes, tests, etc. are to the left.

The present perfect is formed by combining the auxiliary verb "has" or "have" with the past participle.

I have studied.
He has written a letter to María.
We have been stranded for six days.

Because the present perfect is a compound tense, two verbs are required: the main verb and the auxiliary verb.

I have studied.
(main verb: studied ; auxiliary verb: have)

He has written a letter to María.
(main verb: written ; auxiliary verb: has)

We have been stranded for six days.
(main verb: been ; auxiliary verb: have)

In Spanish, the present perfect tense is formed by using the present tense of the auxiliary verb "haber" with the past participle. Haber is conjugated as follows:

he
has
ha
hemos
habéis
han

You have already learned in a previous lesson that the past participle is formed by dropping the infinitive ending and adding either -ado or -ido. Remember, some past participles are irregular. The following examples all use the past participle for the verb "comer."

(yo) He comido.
I have eaten.

(tú) Has comido.
You have eaten.

(él) Ha comido.
He has eaten.

(nosotros) Hemos comido.
We have eaten.

(vosotros) Habéis comido.
You-all have eaten.

(ellos) Han comido.
They have eaten.

For a review of the formation of the past participle [click here].

When you studied the past participle, you practiced using it as an adjective. When used as an adjective, the past participle changes to agree with the noun it modifies. However, when used in the perfect tenses, the past participle never changes.

Past participle used as an adjective:
La cuenta está pagada.
The bill is paid.

Past participle used in the present perfect tense:
He pagado la cuenta.
I have paid the bill.

Here's a couple of more examples:

Past participle used as an adjective:
Las cuentas están pagadas.
The bills are paid.

Past participle used in the present perfect tense:
Juan ha pagado las cuentas.
Juan has paid the bills.

Note that when used to form the present perfect tense, only the base form (pagado) is used.

Let's look more carefully at the last example:

Juan ha pagado las cuentas.
Juan has paid the bills.

Notice that we use "ha" to agree with "Juan". We do NOT use "han" to agree with "cuentas." The auxiliary verb is conjugated for the subject of the sentence, not the object. Compare these two examples:

Juan ha pagado las cuentas.
Juan has paid the bills.

Juan y María han viajado a España.
Juan and Maria have traveled to Spain.

In the first example, we use "ha" because the subject of the sentence is "Juan." In the second example, we use "han" because the subject of the sentence is "Juan y María."

The present perfect tense is frequently used for past actions that continue into the present, or continue to affect the present.

He estado dos semanas en Madrid.
I have been in Madrid for two weeks.

Diego ha sido mi amigo por veinte años.
Diego has been my friend for 20 years.

IRREGULAR VERBS

SIMPLE PAST - PAST PROGRESIVE

Simple Past	Past Progressive
irregular verbs: see 2nd column of irregular verbs I spoke regular verbs: verb + ed I worked	past form of 'be' + ing form of verb   I was speaking you were speaking he / she / it was speaking we were speaking they were speaking
Exceptions
Exceptions when adding 'ed' : when the final letter is e, only add d. Example: love - loved after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled Example: admit - admitted final l is always doubled in British English (not in American English) Example: travel - travelled after a consonant, final y becomes i. (but: not after a vowel) Example: worry - he worried but: play - he played	Exceptions when adding 'ing' : silent e is dropped (but: does not apply for -ee) Example: come - coming but: agree - agreeing after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled Example: sit - sitting final l is always doubled in British English (not in American English) Example: travel - travelling final ie becomes y. Example: lie - lying

Conditional Type 2

1. Form

In a Type 2 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional:

'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

If + simple past

If it rained

If you went to bed earlier Present conditional

you would get wet

you wouldn't be so tired.

Present conditional, form

The present conditional of any verb is composed of two parts - the modal auxiliary would + the infinitive of the main verb (without 'to'.)

Subject would infinitive without to

She would learn

Affirmative  

I would go

Negative  

I wouldn't ask

Interrogative  

Would she come?

Interrogative negative  

Wouldn't they accept?

SOME, ANY, NO & EVERY COMPOUNDS

	meaning	usage
some	algo, algunos	1. Afirmative sentences 2. Interrogative sentences when they mean     invitation or when an affirmative answer     is expected
someone	alguien
somebody	alguien
something	algo
somewhere	en algún sitio
any	algo, algunos, ningún	1. Interrogative sentences 2. Negative sentences (to have a negative     meaning “any” has to follow “not”) 3. Affirmative sentences meaning “cualquier”
anyone	alguien, nadie
anybody	alguien, nadie
anything	algo, nada
anywhere	en algún (ningún) sitio
no	ningún	1. Affirmative or interrogative sentences,     to which they confer a negative meaning. 2. Mainly used as subjects.
no one	nadie
nobody	nadie
nothing	nada
none	ninguno (para cosas)
nowhere	en ninguna parte
every	todos, cada	Affirmative, negative or interrogative sentences
everyone	todos
everybody	todo el mundo
everything	todas las cosas
everywhere	en todas partes

ADVERS

Adverbs are words that modify

• a verb (He drove slowly. — How did he drive?)
• an adjective (He drove a very fast car. — How fast was his car?)
• another adverb (She moved quite slowly down the aisle. — How slowly did she move?)

As we will see, adverbs often tell when, where, why, or under what conditions something happens or happened. Adverbs frequently end in -ly; however, many words and phrases not ending in -ly serve an adverbial function and an -ly ending is not a guarantee that a word is an adverb. The words lovely, lonely, motherly, friendly, neighborly, for instance, are adjectives:

• That lovely woman lives in a friendly neighborhood.

If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb (modifying the verb of a sentence), it is called an Adverb Clause:

• When this class is over, we're going to the movies.

When a group of words not containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb, it is called an adverbial phrase. Prepositional phrases frequently have adverbial functions (telling place and time, modifying the verb):

• He went to the movies.
• She works on holidays.
• They lived in Canada during the war.

And Infinitive phrases can act as adverbs (usually telling why):

• She hurried to the mainland to see her brother.
• The senator ran to catch the bus.

But there are other kinds of adverbial phrases:

• He calls his mother as often as possible.

.

Adverbs can modify adjectives, but an adjective cannot modify an adverb. Thus we would say that "the students showed a really wonderful attitude" and that "the students showed a wonderfully casual attitude" and that "my professor is really tall, but not "He ran real fast."

Like adjectives, adverbs can have comparative and superlative forms to show degree.

• Walk faster if you want to keep up with me.
• The student who reads fastest will finish first.

We often use more and most, less and least to show degree with adverbs:

• With sneakers on, she could move more quickly among the patients.
• The flowers were the most beautifully arranged creations I've ever seen.
• She worked less confidently after her accident.
• That was the least skillfully done performance I've seen in years.

The as — as construction can be used to create adverbs that express sameness or equality: "He can't run as fast as his sister."

A handful of adverbs have two forms, one that ends in -ly and one that doesn't. In certain cases, the two forms have different meanings:

• He arrived late.
• Lately, he couldn't seem to be on time for anything.

In most cases, however, the form without the -ly ending should be reserved for casual situations:

• She certainly drives slow in that old Buick of hers.
• He did wrong by her.
• He spoke sharp, quick, and to the point.

Adverbs often function as intensifiers, conveying a greater or lesser emphasis to something. Intensifiers are said to have three different functions: they can emphasize, amplify, or downtone. Here are some examples:

• Emphasizers:
  • I really don't believe him.
  • He literally wrecked his mother's car.
  • She simply ignored me.
  • They're going to be late, for sure.
• Amplifiers:
  • The teacher completely rejected her proposal.
  • I absolutely refuse to attend any more faculty meetings.
  • They heartily endorsed the new restaurant.
  • I so wanted to go with them.
  • We know this city well.
• Downtoners:
  • I kind of like this college.
  • Joe sort of felt betrayed by his sister.
  • His mother mildly disapproved his actions.
  • We can improve on this to some extent.
  • The boss almost quit after that.
  • The school was all but ruined by the storm.

Adverbs (as well as adjectives) in their various degrees can be accompanied by premodifiers:

• She runs very fast.
• We're going to run out of material all the faster

This issue is addressed in the section on degrees in adjectives.

Past Progressive - Use

1) actions were in progress at special time in the past

Peter was reading a book yesterday evening.

---

2) two actions were happening at the same time (the actions do not influence each other)

Anne was writing a letter while Steve was reading the New York Times.

---

3) together with the Simple Past

While we were sitting at the breakfast table, the telephone rang.

---

4) repeated actions irritating the speaker (with always, constantly, forever)

Andrew was always coming late.

---

Past Progressive - Signal words

while

---

Past Progressive - Form

to be (was, were) + infinitive + -ing

---

Past Progressive - Examples

Affirmative sentences:

I was playing football.

You were playing football.

Negative sentences:

I was not playing football. I was't playing football.

You were not playing football. You weren't playing football.

Questions:

Was I playing football?

Were you playing football?

English Vocabulary

Airplane - Avión
Bus - Autobús
Helicopter - Heliportero
Car - Carro
Tren subterráneo - Subway train
Globo - Air balloon
Traficc - Trafico
Rascacielos - Skyscraper
Edificios - Buildings
Mall - Centro comercial
Estufa - Stove
Refrigerator - Refrigerador
Washdishes - Lava platos
Vacuum - Aspiradora
Jacket - Saco
Ring - Anillo
Earrings - Aretes
Bell Pants - Pantalones acampanados
Boots - Botas

USED TO

(Usted to + verb)

Example:

• I used to go to the beach every day.

It is better not to use "used to" in questions or negative forms; however, this is sometimes done in informal spoken English. It is better to ask questions and create negative sentences using Simple Past.

Use 1 habit in the past

"Used to" expresses the idea that something was an old habit that stopped in the past. It indicates that something was often repeated in the past, but it is not usually done now.

Examples:

• Jerry used to study English.
• Sam and Mary used to go to Mexico in the summer.
• I used to start work at 9 o'clock.
• Christine used to eat meat, but now she is a vegetarian.

USE 2 Past Facts and Generalizations

"Used to" can also be used to talk about past facts or generalizations which are no longer true.

Examples:

• I used to live in Paris.
• Sarah used to be fat, but now she is thin.
• George used to be the best student in class, but now Lena is the best.
• Oranges used to cost very little in Florida, but now they are quite expensive.

"Used to" vs. Simple Past

Both Simple Past and "Used to" can be used to describe past habits, past facts and past generalizations; however, "used to" is preferred when emphasizing these forms of past repetition in positive sentences. On the other hand, when asking questions or making negative sentences, Simple Past is preferred.

Examples:

• You used to play the piano.
• Did you play the piano when you were young?
• You did not play the piano when you were young.

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• Jerry used to pay the bills. Active
• The bills used to be paid by Jerry. Passive

More About Active / Passive Forms

EXERCISES AND RELATED TOPICS

• Past Repetition Simple Past, "Used to" and "Would Always."

WILL

We use will for:

• On-the-spot decisions: I´m tire. I´ll take a nap.

• Predictions based on what we know:

          You´ll lose weight with this workout.

• Promises, offers, theats, hopes:

           I promise you´ll feel better right away.

NOTE: After time words (while, before, after, until, when, if, etc.) we don´t use will. We use the simple present. I´ll call you when I reach Brazil. (NOT: wen I will reach)BUT When will he call? (question word)

Simple Present

We use the simple present for:

• Facts: the sun rises in the east. It doesn´t rises in the west.

• Habits/routines: Astronauts usually sleep 8 hours a day after a 16-hour. They take sponge baths daily. Do they exercise regulary? Yes, they do.

• Timetables: The space moseum opens at 9 pm every weekday.

SPELLING RULES

• Most verbs + -s I sleeps - he sleeps
• verbs in .ss, -sh,-x,-o, + -es I miss - he misses
• consonant + -ies I study - he studies
• vowel + y + -s I play - he plays

Conditional

0 CONDITIONAL
If(conditional,=cause) + simple present + present (effect)
Example: If you go, i go.

If/Clause|Main Clause.
If/When + Simple present + Simple present

If/When you heat water, it boils.
Use: to express a general truth or scientisfic fact. In this type conditional, we can use when instead of if.
When the if-clause precedes the main clause, we can use a comma to separate the two clauses. Compare:
If you heat water, it boils. Water bouls if you heat it.


1st CONDITIONAL
f(conditional=Cause)+ do or doesn't(present)+ future.
Example: If i work tomorrow i will see my boss.

If + simple present -->will + base form of main verb.
If we keep cutting down trees, animals will lose their habitat.
Use: To talk about a possible situation in the present or future.
Animals will lose their habitat if we keep cutting down trees.
Note: Unless=If not.
Compare the examples
Unless we stop cutting down trees, animals will lose their habitats.
If we don't stop cutting down trees,....